Handbook of air conditioning

The projects in the appendices were chosen to cover a variety of building applications and HVAC system types. Since these examples come from actual projects, they include values such as thermal properties, utility costs, owner preferences that are particular to the specific contexts from which they were drawn. The purpose of the examples is to show process, not to suggest recommended or preferred outcomes.

A few words of advice: do not hesitate to make initial design assumptions. No matter how far off the specific values of a final solution they might prove to be, assumptions enable the designer to start on a project and to gradually iterate and improve a proposed design until a satisfactory solution has been obtained.

Frequently, more experienced colleagues may be able to assist by giving coun- sel and the benefit of their experience, but do not hesitate to plunge ahead on your own. Good luck! Read the chapters in this manual that address the systems of interest. Review the example problems in the appropriate appendices of this manual. You cannot, therefore, rely on this manual as the only reference for design work.

As you gain experience, make notes of important con- cepts and ideas what worked and what did not work and keep these notes in a readily accessible location. This manual is intended to point the way toward building such a design database. The best design reference available is the experience of your colleagues and peers. While an attempt has been made in this man- ual to incorporate the experience of design professionals, no static written material can replace dynamic face-to-face interaction with your colleagues.

Use every opportunity to pick their brains, and let them tell you what did not work. Often, more is learned from fail- ures than from successes.

They should be available in every design office. ASHRAE publications are updated on a regular basis every four years for handbooks, often more frequently for standards and guidelines.

The publication dates shown below are current as of the updating of this manual but will change over time. Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Principles. Psychrometric Analysis CD. Principles of Heating, Ventilating and Air- Conditioning. Ecodyne Corporation. Weather Data Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. Kjelgaard, M. Engineering Weather Data. Estimating Guides: Konkel, J. Means Co. Means Mechanical Cost Data, 28th ed. Kingston, MA. Means Facilities Construction Cost Data, 20th ed.

Thomson, J. Experience Exchange Report. McQuiston, F. Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual. Duct System Calculator. An extensive list of applicable codes and standards, including contact addresses for promulgating organizations, is provided in a concluding chapter in each of the ASHRAE Handbooks.

For purposes of building commis- sioning, the acquisition of a building is assumed to flow through several broad phases: predesign, design, construction, and occu- pancy and operation. The design phase is often broken into concep- tual design, schematic design, and design development subphases. Although the majority of design hours will be spent in the design development phase, each of these phases plays a critical role in a successful building project. Design should start with a clear statement of design intent.

Each design intent must be paired with a design criterion, which provides a benchmark for minimum acceptable performance relative to the intent. Design validation involves the use of a wide range of esti- mates, calculations, simulations, and related techniques to confirm that a chosen design option will in fact meet the appropriate design criteria. Design validation is essential to successful design; other- wise there is no connection between design intent and design deci- sions.

Pre- and post-occupancy validations are also important to ensure that the construction process and ensuing operational proce- dures have delivered design intent. Such validations are a key aspect of building commissioning. In a typi- cal analysis, a set of parameters is given that completely describes a problem, and the solution even if difficult to obtain is unique.

There is only one correct solution to the problem; all other answers are wrong. Design problems are inherently different—much different. A design problem may or may not be completely defined some of the parameters may be missing and there are any number of potentially acceptable answers.

Some solutions may be better than others, but there is no such thing as a single right answer to a design problem. There are degrees of quality to design problem solutions. Some solutions may be better often in a qualitative or conceptual sense than others from a particular viewpoint. For a different context or client, other solutions may be better.

It is important to clearly understand the difference between analysis and design. If you are used to looking for the correct answer to a problem via analysis , and are suddenly faced with problems that have several acceptable answers via design , how do you decide which solution to select? Learn to use your judgment or the advice of experienced col- leagues to weigh the merits of a number of solutions that seem to work for a particular design problem in order to select the best among them.

Figures and illustrate the analysis and design pro- cesses, respectively. Analysis proceeds in a generally unidirectional flow from given data to final answer with the aid of certain analyti- cal tools.

Design, however, is an iterative process. Diagram illustrating analysis. For example, an owner or architect may be confronted with the energy implications of excessively large expanses of glass that had been originally spec- ified and may decide to reduce the area of glazing or change the glazing properties.

The mechanical designer may try various sys- tem components and control strategies before finding one that best suits the particular context and conditions. Thus, design consists of a continuous back-and-forth process as the designer selects from a universe of available systems, components, and control options to synthesize an optimum solution within the given constraints. This iterative design procedure incorporates analysis. Analysis is an important part of any design.

Since the first step in design is to map out the general bound- aries within which solutions are to be found, it may be hard to know where and how to start because there is no background from which to make initial assumptions. To overcome this obstacle, make informed initial assumptions and improve on them through subse- quent analysis.

To assist you in making such initial assumptions, simple rules are given throughout the chapters in this manual, and illustrative examples are provided in the appendices. Diagram illustrating design. The architect interfaces with the owner, directs the architectural staff, and coordinates the work of outside or in-house mechanical, electrical, and structural engineers among other consultants.

This fiscal constraint usually seriously limits the amount of time that can be allocated to studies of alternative systems or innovative approaches. The project phases outlined below are those adopted by ASHRAE Guideline and are those generally recognized by the architecture profession. More explicit phases may be defined for certain projects or under certain contracts. The program establishes space needs and develops a project budget. While the architect prepares the general building program, the mechanical engineer has the responsibility of developing a disci- pline-specific program even though some of this information may be provided by the architect or owner.

All changes made to the program during the design process should be recorded so that the documentation is always up-to-date. Additional information regarding solar radiation availability and subsurface conditions would be included if use of a solar ther- mal system or ground-source heat pump was anticipated. For example, if some rooms in a building require humidity control while others do not, the HVAC system must be able to provide humidification to areas requiring it without detriment to the build- ing enclosure or other spaces.

Some areas may require cooling, while others need only ventilation or heating. This will affect selec- tion of an appropriate system. The design phase is often broken down into three subphases: conceptual design, schematic design, and design development. The terms schematic design, design development, and construction documents are also commonly used to describe design process sub- phases. Schematic or early design development design efforts should serve as proof of concept for the earliest design ideas as elements of the solution are further developed and locked into place.

All proposed systems must be able to maintain the envi- ronmental conditions for each space as defined in the OPR. The ability to provide adequate thermal zoning is a critical aspect of such capability. Also consider energy code compliance and green design implications as appropriate. Ques- tions should also be expected regarding the optimum location of major mechanical equipment—considering spatial efficiency, sys- tem effectiveness, aesthetics, and acoustical criteria.

Depending upon the level of information available, the designer may be asked to prepare preliminary HVAC system sizing or performance estimates based upon patterns developed through experience or based upon results from similar, previously designed projects. Although they are pre- liminary and will change as the building design proceeds, such pre- liminary loads are usually definitive enough to compare the performance of alternative systems because these systems will be sized to meet the same loads.

As you gain experience, you will be able to estimate the likely magnitude of the loads for each area in a building with a little calculation effort. Resources useful during this phase of design include design manuals, textbooks, equipment literature, and data from existing installations.

Frequently, this type of early system evaluation eliminates all but a few systems that are capable of providing the environmental requirements and are compatible with the build- ing structure.

Typically, one system is set as a reference or base and other proposed systems are compared to this base system. Such an analysis would proceed according to the following steps: 1. Identify the energy source or sources available and their cost per a convenient unit of energy million Btu, kWh, therm , con- sidering both present and anticipated costs.

Calculate the number of operating hours and hourly operating costs for each subsystem of each candidate HVAC system. This can be done manually or by computer using a simplified energy analysis method or proprietary programs offered by equipment manufacturers and software developers. Using the local utility tariffs, calculate monthly utility costs and sum them for the year. If required by the owner or design team, perform comparative life-cycle or other cost analyses, as described in Section 2.

In order to determine actual equipment operating profiles, data on hourly weather variations throughout the year are required. Operating costs are very much a function of the way a building is operated—how much is the indoor temperature allowed to drop and for how many unoccupied hours in the winter?

Will the cooling system be shut down at night and on weekends? Do special areas, such as computer or process rooms, require cooling 24 hours year- round? If such information is not available, educated assumptions must be used. All systems must be analyzed under the same operat- ing conditions for comparisons to be valid.

Design decisions should be clearly docu- mented whether they constitute approval of, or deviation from, the designer's proposals. Close integration of the mechanical and electrical systems with structure, plan, and building configuration requires the cooperation of all team mem- bers—architect, mechanical engineer, electrical engineer, structural engineer, acoustical consultant, and professionals from other disci- plines.

Such coordination and cooperation will extend to the other design phases. The requirements of state or local building or energy codes see Section 2. If required, energy budgets are established. Some states or jurisdic- tions require a simplified prescriptive compliance calculation that can be prepared by hand; when annual energy-budget compliance calculations are required, however, these must be prepared by com- puter simulation. It is wise to select a computer program that will minimize the inputs required for both the load and the energy anal- yses—while providing acceptable accuracy.

Programs are available that share input between loads and energy programs. Architectural floor plans and elevations are developed in greater detail; structural, mechanical, and electrical systems are designed in compliance with applicable building codes; and draw- ings in preliminary form are prepared.

Heat loss, heat gain, and ventilation calculations are refined and used to design the air and water distribution systems and to select equipment. System sizes and capacities are selected to match design and part-load condi- tions. The designer has the choice of sizing pipes and ducts manu- ally or using a variety of computer programs. The main objective, however, is to develop system layouts for space requirements and cost estimates.

If required by code or owner intent, more detailed energy studies are undertaken at this time and the accompanying calculations are performed. Construction details and cost estimates are refined based upon additional information. Duct and piping systems are designed and control strategies are finalized. Final compliance with owner requirements is verified. The budget is refined, and some of the earlier contingency costs can be elimi- nated. It is possible that trade-offs may occur at this stage based upon performance and costs.

The documents submitted to the owner at the end of this stage of design include complete architectural, mechanical, electrical, and structural drawings; specifications; and estimates of construc- tion cost.

After approval by the owner, the documents including energy code calculations, if required are submitted to government agencies for code review and to contractors to obtain firm bids, with the contract awarded to the lowest responsible bidder or to one who may be able to best meet other owner requirements, such as sched- ule, quality control, or project experience.

At this time, or at the end of construction, the owner may ask for additional computer simulations to provide guidance for opti- mization of systems operations. Studies of this type require extensive and detailed inputs and are costly. These activities may or may not be part of a formal commissioning process see below. While a simple building can be built by the contractor and turned over to the owner with only minimum instructions, this is no longer possible for large buildings and their complex systems and numerous subsystems.

Just as the US Navy will not accept a ship without a sea trial, so a savvy building owner will no longer accept a large building on completion without a series of tests that demonstrate the performance of the building sys- tems, preferably over a full season of weather conditions. New types of engineers and technicians—building commissioning spe- cialists—have evolved. It is their task to verify the proper function- ing of all building systems and subsystems.

The designer is the person best qualified to troubleshoot such a situation and to determine where the fault lies. Complete design documenta- tion should be on hand when that situation arises. In some cases, the commission- ing engineer will support building operations, familiarize operating personnel with the system, and assist them in operating it for a period of one year after building completion. Whether these tasks are performed as part of the design package or under a separately negotiated con- tract depends upon the individual project circumstances.

Videotapes and other training aids can be used to assist the engineer in this task. Thus, they are essential elements in the HVAC design process. The thermal characteristics of the envelope—opaque walls and roof, fenestration, and even the floor—affect the magnitude and duration of the building heat loss and cooling load. Orientation, envelope construction, and shading greatly influence solar loads. Cooling load and heat loss directly influence the required capacity of the primary energy conversion devices boilers and chillers and the size, complexity, and cost of the distribution systems ducts, fans, pipes, pumps.

The need for perimeter heating is a function of climate, opaque wall thermal characteristics, window area and type, and tightness of the envelope relative to infiltration.

High-perfor- mance envelopes may reduce or eliminate the need for perimeter heating in many climates. The greater the internal building mass, the less extensive are the indoor temperature excursions. The place- ment of thermal insulation, whether on the exterior or the interior side of the envelope, affects heating and cooling load patterns.

The envelope construction and the location of the vapor retarder if required also determine the transfer of moisture between the build- ing spaces and the outdoors, thus affecting humidification and dehumidification requirements. The interaction of HVAC system and envelope relative to moisture flows is especially critical to building success in hot-humid and cold climates.

A building can be configured to provide solar shading and wind protection, which will influence heating and cooling loads and control strategies. By reducing transmission and radiation transfer at the perimeter, the envelope reduces the influence of climate on the building interior and thereby affects the designation of thermal zones. If loads in a building do not vary much with time of day, solar intensity, and wind velocity and direction, an HVAC system can be less complex and less costly.

Less heat is gained with well-designed daylighting than with electric lighting for the same illumination levels, so cooling requirements are reduced. Outdoor air intake louvers in walls, window air conditioners, and through-the-wall units obviously affect the appearance of a building.

This may limit system selection options where the resulting appearance is not acceptable to the architect or client. Cooling towers, usually located on the roof, affect the physical appearance of a building. Attractive architectural enclosures can reduce the aesthetic disadvantage of much rooftop equipment. Under certain conditions, such equipment can be placed at ground level and camouflaged by landscaping. The discharge from cooling towers can be corrosive, may leave drift residue on automobiles parked nearby, and may carry bacteria, so cooling tower location is of prime importance.

Cooling towers located below condensers are subject to overflow unless precautions are taken, while towers located above condensers may experience pumping problems upon start-up. Some locali- ties prohibit the installation of noisy, unmuffled equipment. Noise from emergency generators should be considered; although not likely to cause complaints when used during an emergency, such equipment must be regularly run and tested.

Site requirements for ground-source heat pumps must also be considered when looking at exterior design issues. Heavy equipment, such as boilers, tanks, chillers, compres- sors, and large air handlers, should preferably be located on the lowest building level, on a concrete sub-base, and with vibration isolating bases for rotating equipment.

This causes the least amount of vibration to be transmitted into the building structure and consti- tutes the simplest method of structural support for this equipment. In some cases, this may suggest against locating equipment at these locations. When buildings are con- structed with crawlspaces, without basements, or with lightweight flooring, heavy machinery should be placed next to the building, if possible, instead of within the building envelope, provided suffi- cient and appropriate ground area is available.

Since these heat gains are a major air-conditioning load, closely coordi- nate with the lighting designer to be immediately informed of any changes to the lighting system design. The amount of heat from lights contributing to the air-condi- tioning load or reducing space-heating requirements depends upon the type of lamp as well as other factors, such as the amount of thermal mass near the light fixtures, air distribution patterns, sup- ply air volume, type of luminaire, and whether ceilings are exposed or suspended forming an air plenum.

Internal heat gains from electric or gas-fired appliances, motors, food service, and special equipment are normally sensible except for food or steam, which contribute latent heat. Supply air volume is a function of sensible heat loads only, affecting the size of fans, coils, ducts, and other equipment. When supply air or return air troffers are used, the lighting system actually becomes part of the HVAC system, and air supply temperatures to the room as well as supply air and return air distribution are governed by luminaire location.

For examples of lighting load calculations, see Appendices B and C of this manual. As a result, communication between the mechanical and electrical engineers on a project must be bidirectional.

State and local fire codes incorpo- rate and often modify these NFPA codes. An HVAC system can be used to provide fire-event air supply and exhaust requirements in lieu of dedicated fire systems. When doing so, emergency air distribution patterns are likely to vary from day- to-day climate control requirements. In large buildings, fire zones are separated by fire walls and doors. Smoke zones not necessarily coincident with fire zones may also be an issue in some buildings.

In stairwells, corridors, lobbies, or other areas where positive pressure during emergencies may be required, the HVAC system may be used to bring in outdoor air to pressurize the space. Smoke exhaust and pressurization systems generally require more airflow than is required for comfort conditioning. If the cli- mate control system is to function as a smoke control system, it must be capable of changing airflow volume and maintaining pres- sure relationships when used in the fire protection mode.

Use of a dedicated smoke control system simplifies comfort system design. Other fire coordination issues address specific situations. For example, standpipes and sprinkler systems located in unheated spaces may require freeze protection. An emergency power system will be required to operate smoke control systems during an emergency. Exhaust louvers should be sufficiently remote from intake louvers to prevent recirculation of exhaust air into a building.

In large buildings, and in general for central systems, try to locate air-handling units relatively close to the areas they serve in order to reduce distribution duct runs and ductwork and insulation costs. This will also save money via reduced duct friction losses and fan pressure. Piping from boilers and chillers to air-handling units is generally less costly than ductwork from air-handling units to ter- minal outlets and requires less building space or headroom.

Space for horizontal duct and pipe distribution must be accom- modated above the ceiling, under or through structural members, or within a raised floor. Vertical shafts for ducts, pipes, and some con- trol elements are usually accommodated within the building core or defined satellite locations established by the architect.

Raised floors can carry power, communications, and data cabling and can also be part of the HVAC distribution system. A raised floor plenum, about 18 in. A ceiling-based return air system is used in conjunction with the underfloor supply and specially designed floor outlets. Air sup- plied at floor level need not be as cold as air delivered by a ceiling or high-wall supply, since the supply air envelopes and cools occupants before it has picked up other space heat.

This approach can shift the balance of room versus coil loads in a system. See Bauman and Daly for further information on underfloor air distribution. If this cannot be done, place large water-collecting pans beneath the equip- ment to intercept the inevitable condensate drain pan overflow and leakage. Residual sound may still be objectionable, however, when equipment is located near occupied areas. The HVAC engineer should alert other members of the building design team regarding the location of noisy equipment.

On large, acoustically sensitive buildings e. Noise and vibration transmission to an occupied space by sys- tem components will be an important consideration in system selec- tion and design. Even after a system has been selected, component selection will significantly affect system acoustical performance.

Noise can be transmitted to occupied spaces from central station equipment along several airborne paths, through air or water flows, along the walls of ducts or pipes, or through the building structure. If central station pumps or fans are used, each of these paths must be analyzed and the transmission of sound and vibration reduced to an acceptable level. Supply air outlets and other terminal devices must be selected to provide appropriate acoustical performance. An initial step in noise control is to establish noise criteria for all spaces.

These criteria should be communicated to the client early in the design process. All noise-generating sources within the air-conditioning system must be identified.

The acoustical design of systems and the build- ings they serve is, however, frequently quite complex and is often the proper province of specialists known as acousticians. This is especially true for spaces with exacting requirements, such as audi- toriums, or where noise-generating components must be located adjacent to occupied areas.

Many municipalities have codes governing equipment noise. The major paths that govern the sound transmission character- istics of an all-air distribution system are shown in Figure It is absolutely critical to distinguish between airborne sound transmis- sion where barriers are easily applied , duct-borne transmission where other mitigation techniques must be used , and noise gener- ated by terminal devices.

Occupied spaces on the floors directly above or below a room housing an air-handling unit may also be affected by equipment noise and vibration. Most acoustical barriers, Figure Noise propagation paths from HVAC equipment. Structural components do not constitute effective sound barriers unless all penetrations are carefully sealed. Air distribution systems, particularly high-pressure high velocity systems, must be examined during all stages of design and installation to ensure that they are quiet systems.

The principal sources of noise in an air system are the fans, the duct distribution system itself, and terminal devices. Most fan manufacturers can readily provide a sound power spectrum for a particular fan operat- ing under a specific set of conditions. With this information, the designer can select an acoustical treatment to reduce this sound energy to an acceptable level. The fan noises most difficult to remove are those in the lower octave bands. Thus, sound attenua- tion in those bands is an important objective for acoustical treat- ment of fans with low-frequency characteristics such as centrifugal fans.

Sounds in the higher octave bands will normally be absorbed in the duct distribution system, particularly if the ducts are lined. For quiet operation, fans should be selected for maximum static or total efficiency. In variable-air-volume systems, sound pressure levels should also be checked at minimum system flow condition if dampers, inlet vanes, or blade pitch fan control schemes are used. In general, large fans at high static pressure conditions produce the highest noise levels.

Noise and vibration can also be generated within and when exit- ing the distribution system by the movement of air or water. These problems can be controlled by velocity limitations, appropriate dis- tribution layout, use of attenuators, and equipment selection. For piping design, see Section 5. Several noise sources can exist within an air distribution system.

In general, components with higher pressure drops will produce higher sound levels. A pres- sure-reducing device, damper, or pressure regulator located in a ter- minal unit may generate noise as the energy expended in pressure reduction is converted to sound. This is why oversizing of terminal air devices is undesirable. Pressure-reducing devices should be installed in the duct system with sufficient downstream ductwork to absorb the sound generated by the device. Large terminal units with pres- sure-reducing devices should not be installed in occupied spaces without considering acoustical treatment downstream and in the radiated sound path from the terminal to the room.

Sound can travel through ductwork from one room to another. For example, an air-conditioning system that serves a series of music practice rooms will require ductwork with sound baffles between rooms, lined ducts, or ample duct turns to attenuate noise. Noise control will influence duct configuration, size, and system static pressure. The sound produced by room terminal equipment cannot be easily reduced.

Control of this potential problem starts with system selection and entails careful equipment selection and sizing to achieve the noise criteria for a given conditioned space. The more moving parts in a terminal, the noisier it will be.

Air-cooled unitary terminal equipment is likely to be near the high end of the noise scale. Water-cooled terminals, including water-source unitary ter- minals, can be significantly quieter. Air terminal equipment, in ascending order of noisiness, include air diffusers, variable-air-vol- ume boxes, fan-coil units, high-induction-ratio terminals, and pack- aged terminal air conditioners. Continuous terminal noise is usually less annoying than intermittent or alternating noise.

Terminal equipment, because of its location, provides the few- est options for acoustical mitigation. The solution is essentially in the selection of the equipment itself. Greater opportunities for noise control through attenuation e. Air ducts passing through adjacent rooms can be transmission channels for cross-talk, as can unsealed openings around ducts or pipes.

Cross-talk through such paths can be controlled through building design. Occasionally, partitioning will be located so as to divide a room terminal or outlet.

This creates a virtually uncontrollable path for sound transmission between rooms. Different prod- ucts vary in their acoustical performance. Often such equipment is not acoustically rated, at least not on a basis that permits compari- son with other equipment using catalog data. When in doubt, con- sider visiting operating installations or arranging for prototype testing to ensure that the design objectives can be met. Vibration from fans, pumps, refrigeration compressors, and other moving equipment must be kept within tolerable levels.

As in the case of sound, degrees of satisfaction vary depending upon the function of an occupied space. Extraordinary precautions must be taken to protect sensitive areas, such as those housing electron microscopes or research animal colonies. Vibration from imbalanced forces produced by a fan wheel and drive, unless suitably isolated, will pass undiminished into the structure and be transmitted to occupied spaces, where less stiff building members centerpoints of structural spans, windowpanes, a chandelier in a ballroom may respond with noticeable secondary vibrations.

Every member of the building design team must contribute toward achieving a satisfactory acoustical including sound and vibration environment. Local systems include window air conditioners, packaged heat pumps, and unitary or water-cooled packaged units without central source equipment.

Centralized equipment requires a few large spaces, while decentralized equipment requires smaller spaces per equip- ment unit but more of them. Central boiler and chiller plants use industrial or large com- mercial-grade equipment. Such larger equipment is usually more efficient than smaller local equipment units. Major maintenance can be done in one location, away from occupied areas. The integration of heat recovery from one system to another is facilitated.

A central system provides better opportunities for vibration and noise control since the major equip- ment need not be located in or near occupied areas. Zone control is provided by terminal units, VAV or mixing boxes, control valves, or dampers, depending upon system design. Local systems can provide room or zone control without any central equipment, but this approach may be noisier, present more equipment service problems, and interfere with occupant activities in the spaces.

Local stand-alone equipment is generally of lower quality, has a more limited useful life, and, in the case of room air conditioners and other unitary equipment, is often deficient in humidification and outdoor air control capabilities. In some cases, it may be difficult or impossible to provide outdoor air for ventilation to stand-alone units because they are located remote from an out- door air source.

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